The Neoclassical Axioms Placed On Individual Preferences Economics Essay

The Neoclassical Axioms Placed On Individual Preferences Economics Essay Critical Analysis of the Neo Classical consumption theories of Marshallian Utility analysis and Hicksian Indifference analysis. In place of the concept of utility by Alfred Marshall, the indifference curve technique has introduced the term preferences; instead of the cardinal number system, which is said to measure the strength of a consumers desire, the indifference curve substituted ordinal number system of first, second, third etc., to indicate the consumers scale of preferences. The concept of marginal utility has been replaced by the marginal rate of substitution. And against the Marshallian proportionality rule to describe the consumers equilibrium, indifference curve technique has advanced the equality between the marginal rate of substitution and the price ratio. Unrealistic The Marshallian assumption of cardinal measurement of utility is very restrictive. It demands too much from the human mind. Utility is a mental phenomenon and the precision in the measurement of utility assumed by Marshall is unrealistic. It is criticised that new theory of indifference analysis only jumps from the frying pan of the difficulty of measuring utility into the fire of the unreality of assuming consumers complete knowledge of all his scales of preferences or indifference map. The indifference curve technique envisages a consumer who thinks of innumerable possible combinations of goods and his relative preferences for them. Absurd Indifference curves include even the most ridiculous combinations which may be far removed from a consumers habitual combinations. For example, while it may be perfectly sensible to compare whether three pairs of shoes and six shirts would give him as much satisfaction as two pairs of shoes and seven shirts Introspective Both the approaches of Marshallian Utility analysis and indiffence curve technique are based on the psychological or introspective method. The law of diminishing marginal utility, which is psychological in nature lies at the bottom of law of demand. Indifference curve too is based on introspection. This technique is criticised as introspective and hence Samuelson introduced behaviourist method of devising demand theory. Relation of Transitivity objected Armstrong has criticised the relation of transitivity involved in indifference curve technique. According to him, the consumers indifference arises from his inability to perceive the difference between alternative combinations of goods. This is due to the fact that the difference is too slight to be noticed. If that is true, the relation of indifference become non-trasitive. This knocks the bottom out of the whole system of indifference curve analysis. Limited empirical Nature In Hicks-Allen theory, indifference curves are based on hypothetical experimentation. They are based on imaginary indifference curves, although attempts have been made recently to derive them experimentally. The theory of Revealed Preference is associated with the name of Paul Samuelson and the theory is called the behaviourist ordinal utility theory. Instead of the unrealistic assumptions that the consumers operate with a complete and consistent scales of preferences set out in the form of indifference curves, most economists now prefer to analyse situations in which their hypothesis can be tested. Both Marshallian utility analysis and Allen-Hicksian indifference curve technique apply the introspective method or the subjective method. But Samuelsons revealed preference theory makes use of hypotheses which are observable and testable. There is thus a shift from the psychological to behaviouristic explanation of consumer behaviour. According to the revealed preference theory, the consumer is supposed to reveal the nature of his preferences. He shows the goods he would prefer to purchase in a given situation even though he may not be able co to show his scale of preferences on an indifference map. Thus, in a theory of revealed preference, it is unnecessary to assume that the consumers can describe their preferences on indifference map. This is the most important merit of the revealed theory. Also, as Sir Johns Hicks observes, revealed preference theory lends itself to use by econometricians. Axioms of Revealed Preferences Rationality It is assumed that the consumer is rational or ideal. That is, the consumer seeks to maximise his satisfaction from the resources he has. He will choose a combination of goods which he seems most satisfying.i.e., which he prefers the most. In one set of market conditions, he selects one combination and his choices will be different under different market situations. Consistency It is also assumed that the consumers choices are consistent. The choices of actual consumers may not be consistent but those of the ideal or rational consumer may be supposed to be consistent. This consistency implies means, for instance, that if a particular combination of goods P is better than Q combination and Q is better than R, then P must also be assumed to better than R. Transitivity Transitivity ensures that there should be no such circular relationship. That is if P is better than Q and Q is better than R, then R will never better than P or Q will never better than P. Positive Income Elasticity of Demand Another very important assumption underlying revealed preference theory is that the income-elasticity of demand of the consumer must always be positive. That is, if his income increases, his demand for the commodity must also increase; it should not remain the same (i.e., zero elasticity) and it should not also decrease (i.e., negative elasticity) as it happens in the case of inferior goods. Strong Ordering A distinguishing feature of Samuelsons revealed preference theory is that of Strong Ordering. In a strong ordering, each item in a consumers scheme of purchases is assigned a definite place or number and at each number there is only one item so that the consumer definitely reveals his preferences. For instance, a consumer reveals his preference when he is observed to choose, say Q combination of goods in preference to all others and he rejects the rest, In other words, choice reveals preference by choosing one combination and rejecting others, the consumer has shown his definite preference. As indifference advocates in Weak Ordering there may be some items which cannot be arranged in order or preference, so that the consumer is unable to indicate which items he prefers to which. As the combinations of goods on the same indifference curve are concerned because they represent the same level of satisfaction. Since they are equally satisfactory, the consumer can not reveal his preference. The conventional indifference curve is an illustration of weak ordering because all points on the same indifference curve are equally prefereed to represent a non-ordered group. The assumption under lying the indifference curve technique, viz., that a consumer is capable of ordering all conveivable alternatives indicated by several points on the indifference curve, appeared obviously to be unrealistic. Samuelson, therefore, rules out the possibility of weak ordering. By revealing the preference, the behaviour of the consumer is reflected. That is how the revealed preference theory derives a demand theorem from the actual observed behaviour of the consumer. The axiom of strong ordering provides the necessary operational link between observed choice behaviour and the behaviourists welfare conclusions. Thus, the relation of indifference is rejected on operational grounds. Demand Theorem By revealed preference hypothesis, Samuelson has tried to demonstrate inverse relationship between price and the amount demanded by assuming income elasticity of demand to be positive. Samuelson state the demand theorem under the title Fundamental Theorem of Consumption Theory as any good (simple or composite) that is known always to increase in demand when income alone rises must definitely shrink in demand when its proce alone rises. In this proposition, income elasticity of demand has been assumed to be positive. This theorem can be illustrated by the following diagram. In this diagram consumers income in terms of good X is shown by OB and in terms of good Y by OA. If he spends his entire income on these two goods X and Y, AB is the price line. It is assumed that the consumer choose the combination represented by Q on the price line AB as giving him the maximum satisfaction. If the price of X rises, then the new price line will be AC by contracting the demand of X from OB to OC. In this situation, Q which put the consumer in equilibrium before, becomes now beyond his reach. In order to achieve the same combination of Q, consumer is compensated with an extra income to overcome the higher price resistance and new Price line DE parallel to AC but passing through Q is drawn. CE amount money is needed to attain this new price line and this extra money is called as Over Compensation Effect by Samuelson. Since Q combination becomes available, he will not choose any combination lower than Q (i.e., QE part of DE) If he selects Q, it means that he selects the same amount the goods X and Y as before. If he chooses any combination above Q on QD portion of DE, it means that he selects less amount of good X and more amount of good Y. This shows the substitution effect of the price rise. Merits of Revealed Preference Theory There is no doubt that it is an improvement on the Marshallian utility analysis and Hicks-Allen indifference curve technique. It is behaviouristic and draws the demand theorem from the actually observed behaviour of the consumer. On the other hand, both Marshallian Utility analysis and the Hicks-Allen indifference curve techniques are introspective and give psychological explanation of consumer theory. The revealed preference theory studies not an ideal or imaginary consumer and hence, it is more scientific and realistic. Behaviourism has the great advantage of treating the things based on observation and it will never be wrong. Revealed Preference analysis steers clear if tge dubious assumptions upon which the earlier theories were based. Both Marshallian Utility analysis and indifference technique were based on the utility maximisation principle which is more restrictive and difficult to be realised. On the other hand, Revealed Preference theory steers clear of the utility maximisation principle and uses instead the consistency principle to derive the demand theorem. Consistency axiom is less restrictive and more realistic. Indifference analysis is based on the assumption of continuity while Revealed Preference theory does not assume continuity. Indifference curve is continous in the sense that it depicts all conveivable combinations some of which may be so unrealistic as to be ridiculous. That is why Prof. Samuelson gave up the assumption of continuity. Although price line is drawn continuously, yet no continuity is actually involved because the theory is based on the actually observed choice of the consumer from among such combinations as are actually available in the given price-income situation. Conclusion `1` With all the flaws in the revealed preference theory, it is to be admitted that this theory is superior to other demand theories in that it applies a scientific and behaviouristic method to consumers demand. By waving out the assumption of continuity and utility maximisation, the consumer theory put forward by Samuelson has become less restrictive and his enunciation of the preference hypothesis makes a valuable contribution.

International Relations Glossary

A form of political organization under which a relatively homogeneous people Inhabits a sovereign state Sovereignty Denotes a single, supreme political decision-making authority. In early modern Europe the Monarch was the Sovereign. In modern states sovereignty tends to lie with the executive arm of government. A controversial term, sovereignty relies on authority, not power. That is, the sovereign claims the right or authority to decide matters of interest to the state, even if it cannot control everything that occurs within its territory. MedievalOf or relating to the period of European history from about A. D. 500 to about 1500. Feudalism Feudalism was the medieval model of government predating the birth of the modern nation-state. Feudal society is a military hierarchy in which a ruler or lord offers mounted fighters a fief (medieval beneficial), a unit of land to control in exchange for a military service. The individual who accepted this land became a vassal, and the man who gr anted the land become known as his liege or his lord. Individualism A social theory advocating the liberty, rights or Independent action of the Individual.Liberalism A political theory that prizes Individual freedom. It believes Individuals should be free to do as they please, without the interference of others. So long as they don not harm or limit the freedom of others. In IR it has tended to focus on the development of international law, the spread of democracy and the expansion of free trade, in which Emmanuel Kant is one of the leading theorists. Communitarian's A political theory that emphasizes individuals' attachments to the community in which they grew up.The communities in which we grow up are thought to be the resource of moral values. Communitarian's adopts the ethical position that a person's moral obligations are always first and foremost members of our own community and that they cannot be extended beyond that communities boundaries. Liberal Internationalism Woodrow W ilson, thus sometimes being referred to as Williamson'. Wilson suggested that the cause of instability and conflict was the â€Å"undemocratic nature of international politics†, particularly in regards to foreign policy and the balance of power.Having identified the cause of conflict, it is possible to suggest that the aims of Iberia internationalism are expanding democratic practices and free trade, defending democracy from its rivals while protecting and promoting human rights. Harmony of interests The idealist concept of the harmony of interests is based on the notion that human beings can rationally recognize that they have some interests in common, and that cooperation is therefore possible. Democratic Peace Theory The theory that democratic states do not fight war against each other.A good amount of empirical evidence has been collected indicating that war has never been fought teen two stable democracies. Closely associated with Michael Doyle. International Institution s International institutions be defined as relatively stable sets of related constitutive, regulative, and procedural norms and rules that pertain to the international system, the actors in the system (including states as well as non-state entities), and their activities. Interdependence The mutual dependence developed among states by utilizing new technologies and through the growth of international cross-border commerce. Communication and travel.A term used before globalization became popular. Anarchy The absence of rule or government. In international relations it does not mean disorder and chaos. Power Classically defined as the ability to get an actor to do what they would otherwise not do. This is power in the sense of domination or power over others. But power can also be thought of in terms of capability or power to do or act. Realist theories hold the belief that international relations are a constant struggle for power, usually defined by material terms. National Interest A notoriously plastic term that refers to the states foreign policy aims.The national interest is said to be the same regardless of the government in power, but different governments will hold different ideological agendas and priorities, meaning that national interest will change accordingly. Refers to a mechanism that operates to prevent one state from achieving such a preponderance of power that it is in a position to lay down and enforce the law over all such others. Central to realist theories, it can be viewed as the deliberate product of foreign policies, or as the unintended consequence of several states seeking to protect themselves.In any case, states align with others to counter-balance the growth in another's power, seeking to preserve international order and a degree of equilibrium. International Community vs. international system An international system exists when two or more states have sufficient contact with each other that they become conscious of existing in the same environment and conscious of the need to consider other states interests and capabilities in the pursuit of their own interests.Globalization The stretching and intensification of social and economic relations across the globe dad possible by new communication and computer technologies and advances in transport. It is thought by many to inaugurate an unprecedented degree of global interconnectedness, although some deny its novelty by pointing to similar levels of interdependence in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Still others criticism globalization for being a vehicle of inalienable theory. Non-state Actor An actor not part of the official state or governmental apparatuses.Non-governmental organizations Specializes not-for-profit non-state actors that seek to raise consciousness and hanged the activities of governments and populations on a variety of issues. Nooks have proliferated over the last century, advocating and lobbying on issues such as human rights, landmines, poverty, animal rights and the environment, among many others. Civil Society Simply refers to those who act in international politics but are not a member or representative of any particular state. Social Movements. Denotes some kind of collective action, driven by a particular set of social concerns and emerging from society at large.Modernity A modern way of thinking, working etc. The schism between domestic and international politics in international relations. The clash of civilizations The cause of conflict in the 21st century will not be political or economic, but cultural. Different cultures have different ways of organizing society and this will be the cause of conflict. He cites Western, Slavic Orthodox, Hindu, Islamic, Japanese, Latin America, African and Confucian as the main civilizations. Cosmopolitan Democracy Cosmopolitan democracy is a political theory which explores the application of norms and values of democracy at different levels, from global to local .It is about what global governance of the people, by the people, for the people can mean. Asian Century The dominant role that could be played by Asia in the 21st century, because of its growing economic clout and global demographic trends. â€Å"Asian Century† as a theme, has gained credence following the rapid economic growth of China and India since the asses, which has propelled them to the top ranks of the world's biggest economies Mercantilism The main economic system used during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.The main goal was to increase a nation's wealth by imposing government regulation uncovering all of the nation's commercial interests. It was believed that national strength could be maximized by limiting imports via tariffs and maximizing exports. North-south gap The North-South divide is broadly considered a socio-economic and political divide. Generally, definitions of the Global North include the United States, Canada, developed parts of Europe, and Ea st Asia. The Global South is made up of Africa, Latin America, and developing Asia including the Middle East.Unilateralism An approach to economics and social studies in which control of economic factors is hefted from the public sector to the private sector. Drawing upon principles of neoclassical economics, unilateralism suggests that governments reduce deficit spending, limit subsidies, reform tax law to broaden the tax base, remove fixed exchange rates, open up markets to trade by limiting protectionism, privative state- run businesses, allow private property and back deregulation.Focuses on the interplay between political power and economic forces from the national through to the international and global level, whilst also taking account Based on liberal theories of economics, 1944 saw the meeting of 44 states at Breton Woods, where the new economic order was constructed and the multilateral institutions of the WEB, MIFF and GAIT were established.Hegemony Domination by a great power and its allies Washington Consensus This is the set of 10 policies that the US government and the international financial institutions based in the US capital believed were necessary elements of â€Å"first stage policy reform† that all countries should adopt to increase economic growth. At its heart is an emphasis on the importance of macroeconomic stability and integration onto the international economy – in other words a neo-liberal view of globalization.Rationalization The process of dividing an area into smaller segments called regions. One of the more obvious examples of rationalization is the division of a nation into states or provinces. 1951 Refugee Convention The 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees is the key legal document in defining who is a refugee, their rights and the legal obligations of states. UN Declaration of Human Rights (1948) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is an international document that states Asia rights and f undamental freedoms to which all human beings are entitled.Negative Rights and Positive Rights Positive Rights are rights that can only be enjoyed through positive intervention on the part of government, often linked to the idea of freedom to', whilst negative rights are rights that are enjoyed by virtue of the inactivity of others, particularly government, and are often seen as freedoms from'. Resurrections The application of values and theories drawn from European culture, to other groups or peoples, implying a biased or distorted viewpoint.

Walt Whitman and the Civil War

The poet Walt Whitman wrote about the Civil War extensively.  His heartfelt observation of life in wartime Washington made its way into poems, and he also wrote articles for newspapers and a number of notebook entries only published decades later. He had worked for years as a journalist, yet Whitman did not cover  the conflict as a regular newspaper correspondent. His role as an eyewitness to the conflict was unplanned. When a newspaper casualty list indicated that his brother serving in a New York regiment had been wounded in late 1862, Whitman traveled to Virginia to find him. Whitmans brother George had only been slightly wounded. But the experience of seeing army hospitals made a deep impression, and Whitman felt compelled to move from Brooklyn to Washington to become involved with the Union war effort as a hospital volunteer. After securing a job as a government clerk, Whitman spent his off-duty hours visiting hospital wards filled with soldiers, comforting the wounded and the sick. In Washington, Whitman was also perfectly positioned to observe the workings of the government, movements of troops, and the daily comings and goings of a man he greatly admired, President Abraham Lincoln. At times Whitman would contribute articles to newspapers, such as a detailed report of the scene at Lincoln’s second inaugural address. But Whitman’s experience as a witness to the war was mostly important as an inspiration for poetry. A collection of poems titled Drum Taps, was published after the war as a book. The poems contained in it ultimately appeared as an appendix to later editions of Whitmans masterpiece, Leaves of Grass. Family Ties to the War During the 1840s and 1850s, Whitman had been following politics in America closely. Working as a journalist in New York City, he no doubt followed the national debate over the greatest issue of the time, slavery. Whitman became a supporter of Lincoln during the 1860 presidential campaign. He also saw Lincoln speak from a hotel window in early 1861, when the president-elect passed through New York City on the way to his first inauguration. When Fort Sumter was attacked in April 1861 Whitman was outraged. In 1861, when Lincoln called for volunteers to defend the Union, Whitman’s brother George enlisted in the 51st New York Volunteer Infantry. He would serve for the entire war, eventually earning an officer’s rank, and would fight at Antietam, Fredericksburg, and other battles. Following the slaughter at Fredericksburg, Walt Whitman was reading casualty reports in the New York Tribune and saw what he believed to be a misspelled rendering of his brother’s name. Fearing that George had been wounded, Whitman traveled southward to Washington. Unable to find his brother at military hospitals where he inquired, he traveled to the front in Virginia, where he discovered that George had only been very slightly wounded. While at Falmouth, Virginia, Walt Whitman saw a horrifying sight beside a field hospital, a pile of amputated limbs. He came to empathize with the intense suffering of wounded soldiers, and during two weeks in December 1862, he spent visiting his brother he resolved to begin helping in military hospitals. Work as a Civil War Nurse Wartime Washington contained a number of military hospitals which took in thousands of wounded and ill soldiers. Whitman moved to the city in early 1863, taking a job as a government clerk. He began making the rounds in hospitals, consoling the patients and distributing writing paper, newspapers, and treats such as fruits and candy. From 1863 to the spring of 1865 Whitman spent time with hundreds, if not thousands, of soldiers. He helped them write letters home. And he wrote many letters to his friends and relatives about his experiences. Whitman later said that being around the suffering soldiers had been beneficial to him, as it somehow restored his own faith in humanity. Many of the ideas in his poetry, about the nobility of common people, and the democratic ideals of America, he saw reflected in the wounded soldiers who had been farmers and factory workers. Mentions in Poetry The poetry Whitman wrote had always been inspired by the changing world around him, and so his eyewitness experience of the Civil War naturally began to infuse new poems. Before the war, he had issued three editions of Leaves of Grass. But he saw fit to issue an entirely new book of poems, which he called Drum Taps. The printing of Drum Taps began in New York City in the spring of 1865, as the war was winding down. But then the assassination  of Abraham Lincoln prompted Whitman to postpone publication so he could include material about Lincoln and his passing. In the summer of 1865, after the war’s end, he wrote two poems inspired by Lincoln’s death, â€Å"When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d† and â€Å"O Captain! My Captain!† Both poems were included in Drum Taps, which was published in the fall of 1865. The entirety of Drum Taps was added to later editions of Leaves of Grass.

Movie Analysis Penanggal Is A Malaysian Horror Film...

Penanggal is a Malaysian horror film about a girl, Murni, who is transferred the power of the penanggal by her grandmother moments before the grandmother is killed by the village for eating newborn babies. Murni becomes a penanggal against her will regularly and kills women and newborn babies. She also uses magic to make a man fall in love with her and spits acidic blood on his beautiful fiancà ©e when she comes to save him. In the end, the villagers kill Murni by setting her house on fire with her inside, as they did to her grandmother in the beginning. Cultural context: The film I selected was made in Malaysia and released there in 2013. According to the CIA’s World Factbook, 23.2% of Malaysia’s land is agricultural and another 62% is forest5. Only an estimated 5% of Malaysia’s cropland is actually irrigated6, meaning that the other 95% is tended by hand. 16% of Malaysians today are still employed in agriculture16. Malaysia’s culture focuses heavily on agriculture, much like the traditional Slavic culture. There are several kinds of vampire myths that can be found in Southeast Asia1 with a few being Malaysian – the penanggal, Maneden, Bajang, a polong/pelesit, and the langsuir2. In appearance, a penanggal is a floating woman s head with entrails dangling beneath. Unlike the Slavic vampires who can be men or women, penanggalan are exclusively young or old beautiful women3. The intestines dangling below her head drip a liquid that causes sores when it makes contact with

Heroes or Villains - The Taliban - 1464 Words

What is a hero? What is a villain? Although definitions vary within our global society, it is generally accepted that a hero is selfless, humble, and moral and has integrity, while a villain is corrupt or evil, incapable of feeling guilt or compassion and is guilty of committing heinous crimes. However, it should be noted that the labels of ‘hero’ and ‘villain’ are subjective, and that, in the words of Sirius Black (the falsely incriminated godfather of the titular hero of the Harry Potter series) â€Å"†¦ the world isn’t split into good people and [villains]. We’ve all got light and dark inside of us†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Yates, 2007) The Taliban are a group who were once perceived as heroes, by those who now label them as ‘villains’. The Taliban, whose name is†¦show more content†¦The U.S Country Report on Human Rights Practises – Afghanistan (2001) detailed the physical requirements demanded by the Taliban, with men being required to have â€Å"a beard extending farther than a first clamped at the base of their chin†. Men were also required to wear their hair short and to wear a head covering. Sharia law was enforced by ‘religious police, who beat offenders with long sticks. Crimes such as theft were punished by amputation of a hand, rape and then public execution by a gun shot or by being stoned to death. Punishments were carried out in front of crowds in Kabul’s former soccer stadium. These bans and brutal punishments were enforced as they were detailed in the Holy Koran, which the Taliban interpreted as the law. According to the Taliban’s interpretation of the Holy Koran, women were inferior in every aspect of life. As a result women and girls were stripped of their rights and were considered possessions. As Sirius Black said in the novel, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, â€Å"†¦ to know what a man’s like, take a good look at how he treats his inferiors, not his equals.† (Rowling, 2000). The Taliban’s treatment of their â€Å"inferiors† shows their indifference towards the helpless innocents of their society, an inability to feel compassion regarded as a villainous trait. Following the conflict with the Soviets and warlords, Afghanistan’s infrastructure andShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Documentary To You It s A Reality 1671 Words   |  7 Pages â€Å" To you it’s a film, to them it’s a reality†; the translated poster headline of the award winning observational war documentary Armadillo (Metz, 2010), a captivating film, shadowing a platoon of soldiers as they fought the Taliban in the Helmand province of southern Afghanistan. A controversial and sensitive topic, in which director and filmmaker Janus Metz endeavoured to depict the brutalising effects of war, with a character driven and emotional story embedded through out. With such impact surroundingRead MoreHeroes Throughout History and Popular Culture1873 Words   |  8 Pages Heroes A hero is defined as a person who is admired for great or brave acts or fine qualities (Hero, n.p.). Through the passage of time in history, the perceptions and characteristics of what makes a hero have changed. While some characteristics have remained constant, others have evolved and developed as society has changed. One thing that is certain is that most people have their own individual descriptions and ideas that define a hero. Heroes have high standards to meet. Thousands of peopleRead MoreThe Comic Books And Propaganda1855 Words   |  8 Pagesrestore a sense of nationalism to the populace, and fight the Chinese and North Korean communists that were invading their homeland. Like the Second World War, the comic books of the Korean War were meant to portray the Communists forces as cruel villains. After Korea, the Vietnam War raged on and psychological warfare troops known as Psywarriors spread propaganda to troops on both sides of the war. The South Vietnamese Political Warfar e Department made various comics to keep their soldiers moraleRead MoreEssay on Fall of Asclepius95354 Words   |  382 Pagesworld have refused to answer questions whether this disease is the swine flu or an Ebola outbreak. Due to lack of cooperation with politicians, rumours formed across the internet and Twitter that the illness was a biological attack by Al Qaeda or the Taliban. Neither group has taken credit for the illness. 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Mentoring Relationships An Analysis Free Essays

Mentoring is defined as a form of teaching where one guides without leading and basically teaches by example. In essence, it’s about helping to learn how to achieve something. Mentoring can be applied to a variety of fields and specialties, including business, the academe, healthcare, and government. We will write a custom essay sample on Mentoring Relationships: An Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now For this case study, the focal point of interest as to learning experiences in mentoring will be Dr. Rachel Lindsay. It can be said that Dr. Lindsay has had many different types of mentoring relationships in the course of her professional career. Currently a professor of nursing, her original intent was to be a physician. However, her first mentor became responsible for altering this course of action. This mentor is none other than her own mother, who happened to be a nurse as well. The influence her mother had played a large role in her decision to become a nurse instead, after seeing the work her mother did and eventually becoming comfortable with it. The next major mentoring relationship she had afterwards was when she became a nurse consultant to a dentist who worked with chronically ill people. Her work with the dentist allowed her to gain an intimate perspective of the lives of the chronically ill and affected. Subconsciously, her experiences laid the foundation for her even deeper concern for the welfare of others, especially after being party to the various sufferings and vulnerabilities of the patients who came while she was under the tutelage of the dentist. However, while her experiences thus far with the mentoring process had been successful and beneficial towards her overall development as an individual, there were also times when the system let her down. When given the task of having to deliver a course for nurses who work in nursing homes, Dr. Lindsay immediately discovered a problem with the course in question. Hoping to rectify the situation, she approached her dean, whom she looked up to, in the hopes of him becoming her mentor and help her revise the course to make it a better one. Unfortunately, the dean did not honor this request and only disappointed her. This became her first experience at being let down by a possible mentor in her life. This was further proven when she discussed her career plans, only to find that he was against nurses with advanced degrees. Disillusioned, Dr. Lindsay turned to a nurse practitioner only to be disappointed again; her new mentor only seemed content with discussing procedural knowledge but not abstract changes. These happenings turned out to be for the better however because it signaled her return to the hospital setting, where she would later handle staff development classes and meet another mentor in her life, Bob the HR director. Under him, she learned many new things, not just about the profession itself, but with dealing with others and outside pressures as well. It would not be long before she became satisfied enough to move on to another job. Dr. Lindsay eventually ended up in the academe, where another mentor emerged in the form of her division chair. Just like her other mentors, this one did not seem threatened or impressed that much with her degrees or experience, thus their working relationship became very good indeed. This relationship would soon be tested because of a case of plagiarism of one of Dr. Lindsay’s students, and it can be said that neither Dr. Lindsay nor the subject chair in question saw eye to eye on how best to treat the student. In summary, after all her experiences with different mentors, Dr. Lindsay’s mentoring tool kit should include the knowledge she has gained through her many years in formal education, plus the knowledge she gained through her various experiences. This, combined with the many years she spent under various mentors will help her to become the most effective mentor possible. References Gibson, S. K. (2004). Being mentored: The experience of women faculty. Journal of Career Development, 30(3), 173-188. Stewart, B., Krueger, L. (1996). An evolutionary concept analysis of mentoring in nursing. Journal of Professional Nursing, 12, 311-321. Veenman, S., Denessen, E. (2001). The coaching of teachers: Results of five training studies. Educational Research and Eva How to cite Mentoring Relationships: An Analysis, Essay examples

Organizational Culture Compared free essay sample

To understand organizational culture, it is imperative to first understand culture. Culture can be defined as the beliefs, customs, practices, and social behavior of a particular nation or people; a particular set of attitudes that haracterizes a group of people; or a group of people whose shared beliefs and practices identify the particular place, class or time to which they belong (Encarta). Secondly, one must value the meaning of culture in the work place in order to comprehend its advantages. The ability to interact effectively with members of other cultures often translates into financial gain, increased employment, and better advancement prospects (DeVito 26). The next step in understanding organizational culture is to know the exact definition. Edgar Schein defines it as: A pattern of hared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, which has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems (Nellen). Schein describes the culture of an organization as consisting of three levels. At the fundamental level are the core beliefs and assumptions that members of a culture see as truth (Cheney, that it is necessary for the system to grow, and that workers must be supervised. The second level consists of values and behavioral norms. In this section the organization beings to recognize its involvement in the culture; it becomes aware of its culture. Artifacts are the third level of organizational culture. Artifacts are the portion of the organization that involves the five senses. They are visible and tangible. An example of a cultures artifact is its building or the dress code. Deal and Kennedy defined organizational culture as the way things get done around here. They measured organizations in respect of: * Feedback quick feedback eans an instant response. This could be in monetary terms, but could also be seen in other ways, such as the impact of a great save in a soccer match. * Risk represents the degree of uncertainty in the organizations activities. Using these parameters, they were able to suggest four classifications of organizational culture: * The Tough-Guy Macho Culture. Feedback is quick and the rewards are high. This often applies to fast moving financial activities such as brokerage, but could also apply to a police force, or athletes competing in team sports. This can be a very tressful culture in which to operate. * The Work Hard/Play Hard Culture is characterized by few risks being taken, all with rapid feedback. This is typical in large organizations, which strive for high quality customer service. It is often characterized by team meetings, Jargon and buzzwords. * The Bet your Company Culture, where big stakes decisions are taken, but it may be years before the results are known. Typically, these might involve development or exploration projects, which take years to come to fruition, such as oil prospecting or military aviation. * The Process Culture occurs in organizations where there is little or no feedback. People become bogged down with how things are done not with what is to be achieved. This is often associated with bureaucracies. While it is easy to criticize these cultures for being overly cautious or bogged down in red tape, they do produce consistent results, which are ideal in, for example, public services. Charles Handy (1985) popularized the 1972 work of Roger Harrison of looking at culture which some scholars have used to link organizational structure to organizational culture. He describes Harrisons four ypes thus: * a Power Culture which concentrates power among a few. Control radiates from the center like a web. Power and influence spread out from a central fgure or group. Power desires from the top person and personal relationships with that individual matters more than any formal title of position. Power Cultures have few rules and little bureaucracy; swift decisions can ensue. * In a Role Culture, people have clearly delegated authorities within a highly defined structure. Typically, these organizations form hierarchical bureaucracies. Power derives from a persons osition and little scope exists for expert power. Controlled by procedures, roles descriptions and authority definitions. Predictable and consistent systems and procedures are highly valued. By contrast, in a Task Culture, teams are formed to solve particular problems. Power derives from expertise as long as a team requires expertise. These cultures often feature the multiple reporting lines of a matrix structure. It is all a small team approach, who are highly skilled and specialist in their own markets of experience. * A Person Culture exists where all individuals believe rganizations, s ince the concept of an organization suggests that a group of like- minded individuals pursue the organizational goals. Some professional partnerships can operate as person cultures, because each partner brings a particular expertise and clientele to the firm. Writers from Critical management studies have tended to express skepticism about the functionalist and unitary views of culture put forward by mainstream management thinkers. While not necessarily denying that organizations are cultural phenomena, they would stress the ways in which cultural ssumptions can stifle dissent and reproduce management propaganda and ideology. After all, it would be naive to believe that a single culture exists in all organizations, or that cultural engineering will reflect the interests of all stakeholders within an organization. In any case, Parker has suggested that many of the assumptions of those putting forward theories of organizational culture are not new. They reflect a long-standing tension between cultural and structural (or informal and formal) versions of what organizations are. Further, it is perfectly reasonable to uggest that complex organizations might have many cultures, and that such sub- cultures might overlap and contradict each other. The neat typologies of cultural forms found in textbooks rarely acknowledge such complexities, or the various economic contradictions that exist in capitalist organizations. One of the strongest and widely recognized criticisms of theories that attempt to categorize or pigeonhole organizational culture is that put forward by Linda Smircich. She uses the metaphor of a plant root to represent culture, describing that it drives organizations rather than vice versa.